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Glossary

44 terms from clearance papers, court orders and power plans, in plain words.

How a project gets cleared

  1. 1Memorandum of understandingState signs with developer
  2. 2Terms of ReferenceWhat the study must cover
  3. 3Environmental impact assessmentThe impact study
  4. 4Public hearingPeople get a say
  5. 5Expert Appraisal CommitteeExperts review
  6. 6Environmental clearanceEnvironment ministry clears
  7. 7Forest clearanceForest land handed over

On forest land, the gram sabha must also consent under the Forest Rights Act before forest clearance.

All terms

Category

Energy

Battery energy storage system (BESS)

Grid-scale batteries (mostly lithium-ion) that store electricity in containers, needing far less land than a Pumped storage project (PSP) Two reservoirs at different heights: water is pumped up when power is cheap and released through turbines when power is needed. More in glossary → .

Read more

Battery energy storage system (BESS) Grid-scale batteries (mostly lithium-ion) that store electricity in containers, needing far less land than a PSP. More in glossary → does the same grid job as a PSP for short durations (typically 2–4 hours) and can be built in months on small plots near substations. Indian tenders in 2025–26 brought battery tariffs close to 8-hour PSP tariffs per MW, MWh and GWh MW is how fast power flows; MWh (or GWh = 1,000 MWh) is how much energy is stored or delivered. More in glossary → of storage. CEA concurrence Technical-economic approval of a hydro DPR by the Central Electricity Authority, needed above a cost threshold. More in glossary → 's plan to 2031-32 has more battery capacity (47.24 GW) than pumped storage (26.69 GW). Batteries have their own costs: mining, a shorter life and recycling.

Related: Pumped storage projectMW, MWh and GWh

Ecology

Canopy density / very dense forest

How much of the ground the tree crowns cover. 70% or more is ' Canopy density / very dense forest How much of the ground the tree crowns cover. 70% or more is 'very dense forest' in India's forest survey. More in glossary → ' in India's forest survey.

Read more

The Forest Survey of India classes forest cover by canopy density: very dense (70% and above), moderately dense (40–70%), open (10–40%) and scrub (below 10%). Forest papers record canopy as a fraction, so 'canopy 0.7' (as recorded for Shirawta) means very dense forest.

Related: Forest Advisory CommitteeNet present value (NPV) of forest

Energy

Capacity factor

Actual yearly output divided by what the plant would produce running flat out all year.

Read more

A PSP is meant to run only a few hours a day. Karjat's Environmental clearance (EC) The environment ministry's permission for a project, given after the EIA and public hearing, with conditions attached. More in glossary → figures (6,241.5 million units a year from 3,000 MW) imply a Capacity factor Actual yearly output divided by what the plant would produce running flat out all year. More in glossary → of about 24%, or roughly 5.7 full-power hours a day. Capacity factor matters for working out yearly losses and emissions.

Related: MW, MWh and GWhRound-trip efficiency

Process

Category A project

A project big or risky enough to be appraised by the central environment ministry rather than the state.

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The Environmental impact assessment (EIA) The study a developer must commission on a project's effects on land, water, wildlife and people before it can get an EC. More in glossary → sorts projects into Category A project A project big or risky enough to be appraised by the central environment ministry rather than the state. More in glossary → (central appraisal by an Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) The central committee of experts that recommends ToR and EC for river valley and hydro projects, including PSPs. More in glossary → ) and Category B (state appraisal by SEIAA/SEAC). Category A projects skip screening and always need an EIA. All the Ghats PSPs are Category A under item 1(c), river valley projects.

Related: Environmental impact assessmentExpert Appraisal Committee

Bodies

CEA concurrence

Technical-economic approval of a hydro Detailed project report (DPR) The engineering and cost report for a project; a pre-feasibility report (PFR) is the early version. More in glossary → by the Central Electricity Authority, needed above a cost threshold.

Read more

Under Section 8 of the Electricity Act, 2003, hydro schemes above a capital cost set by the Centre need CEA concurrence: ₹3,000 crore under an Aug 2025 notification. That notification exempts off-stream Closed loop A PSP whose two reservoirs are built away from rivers; water is filled once and then recirculated. More in glossary → PSPs whatever their cost. Concurrence covers engineering and cost, not environment.

Related: Detailed project reportClosed loop

Energy

Closed loop

A PSP whose two reservoirs are built away from rivers; water is filled once and then recirculated.

Read more

In a closed-loop project both reservoirs are artificial and not on a natural stream. ('Off-stream' only means away from the main river; an off-stream project can still be Open loop A PSP with at least one reservoir on a river or stream, so it changes natural water flow. More in glossary → , like Bhivpuri.) Water is drawn once from a nearby source to fill them, then topped up for evaporation. This avoids damming a river, but the reservoirs, roads and Muck disposal Rock and soil dug out for tunnels and caverns, dumped on land set aside for it. More in glossary → dumps still need land, often forest on hill tops and slopes. A 2025 central notification exempts off-stream closed-loop schemes from CEA concurrence of their project reports, whatever their cost.

Related: Open loopPumped storage projectCEA concurrence

Law

Compensatory afforestation (CA) and CAMPA

Planting on other land to 'replace' forest that is cut. The developer pays; the money goes to a state Compensatory afforestation (CA) and CAMPA Planting on other land to 'replace' forest that is cut. The developer pays; the money goes to a state CAMPA fund. More in glossary → fund.

Read more

For forest diverted, the developer must provide equal non-forest land (or twice the area of degraded forest) for planting, and pay for it into the state's CAMPA account. Plantations elsewhere do not replace a natural forest's age, species or water role. Karjat's CA land had to move from Ratnagiri to Patan (Satara) after landowners withdrew; the new land lies in the buffer of Western Ghats / Sahyadri The 1,600 km mountain chain along India's west coast: older than the Himalaya, a UNESCO World Heritage site and a global biodiversity hotspot. More in glossary → Wildlife sanctuary (WLS) and tiger reserve Protected areas under the Wild Life (Protection) Act. A tiger reserve has an inviolate core and a surrounding buffer. More in glossary → and is already mostly forest.

Related: Forest clearanceNet present value (NPV) of forest

Process

Cumulative impact assessment

A study of the combined effect of all projects in one river basin or landscape, rather than one project at a time.

Read more

Each PSP's EIA looks at its own footprint. Several sites cluster on the same ridges (Saidongar, Pimpalpada Savale, Amba, Pawana Falyan, Bhivpuri) and catchments (Kalu: THDC Malshej and NHPC Kalu). The EAC has asked Amba's developer for 'a combined study of all projects', but no basin-wide cumulative study exists for these Sahyadri catchments.

Related: Environmental impact assessmentExpert Appraisal Committee

Process

Detailed project report (DPR)

The engineering and cost report for a project; a pre-feasibility report (PFR) is the early version.

Read more

A PFR accompanies the Terms of Reference (ToR) The list of studies an EIA must cover, set by the expert committee. Getting a ToR is the first clearance step, not a permission to build. More in glossary → application; the DPR comes later and sets the final layout, cost and tariff. Land and forest figures often change between the two.

Related: CEA concurrenceTerms of Reference

Ecology

Devrai (sacred grove)

Patches of old forest protected by villages for a local deity; often the last old-growth trees in a valley.

Read more

Maharashtra has thousands of Devrai (sacred grove) Patches of old forest protected by villages for a local deity; often the last old-growth trees in a valley. More in glossary → (counts range from about 2,800 to 4,000), most in the Ghats and Konkan, many owned by village councils or temple trusts. They hold rare and old trees and springs. They have no special legal status in Forest clearance (Stage-I / Stage-II) Central permission to use forest land for a project. Stage-I is in-principle approval with conditions; Stage-II is final approval. More in glossary → unless recorded as forest or as community forest resources under the Forest Rights Act (FRA) The 2006 law that recognises tribal and forest-dwelling communities' rights over the land and forests they use. More in glossary → .

Related: Forest Rights ActWestern Ghats / Sahyadri

Process

EAC site visit

An inspection by EAC members. Since Sep 2024 the EAC wants one for every Western Ghats PSP before EC.

Read more

At its 16th meeting (27 Sep 2024) the EAC recommended EAC site visit An inspection by EAC members. Since Sep 2024 the EAC wants one for every Western Ghats PSP before EC. More in glossary → , 'wherever feasible', for all PSPs in the Western Ghats. Visits are short and accompanied by the developer. Some sites could not be reached (Karjat's upper reservoirs were judged from drone footage), and the Amba and Malshej Ghat visits took place in June, before the monsoon, when hill streams are dry.

Related: Expert Appraisal CommitteeEnvironmental clearance

Law

Eco-sensitive zone (ESZ)

A notified buffer around a sanctuary or national park where some activities are banned or regulated.

Read more

Eco-sensitive zone (ESZ) A notified buffer around a sanctuary or national park where some activities are banned or regulated. More in glossary → are notified around protected areas, usually up to 10 km, with activities listed as prohibited, regulated or permitted. Where no ESZ is notified, projects within 10 km of a protected area need the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) The body chaired by the Prime Minister whose Standing Committee must approve projects in or near protected areas. More in glossary → Standing Committee's approval. Some ESZ notifications ban new major hydro (Kalsubai-Harishchandragad, 2017), which is why Ghatghar Stage II was deferred. The Mahabaleshwar–Panchgani ESZ (2001) has a monitoring committee whose No-objection certificate (NoC) A letter from another authority saying it does not object, often required before a committee will consider a project. More in glossary → let Humbarli Birmani get its ToR. Not to be confused with the Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) About 56,825 sq km of the Western Ghats proposed for protection since 2014; still only a draft, reissued six times. More in glossary → .

Related: Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive AreaNational Board for WildlifeWildlife sanctuary (WLS) and tiger reserveNo-objection certificate

Process

Environmental clearance (EC)

The environment ministry's permission for a project, given after the EIA and Public hearing A meeting near the project site, run by the state pollution control board, where affected people can object on record. More in glossary → , with conditions attached.

Read more

After the EIA and public hearing, the EAC appraises the project and recommends (or rejects) an EC; the ministry then issues the letter. An EC is separate from forest clearance: a project needs both before it can fell trees on forest land. EC conditions often include wildlife plans, compensatory planting and monitoring, but enforcement is weak.

Related: Environmental impact assessmentTerms of ReferenceForest clearanceExpert Appraisal Committee

Process

Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

The study a developer must commission on a project's effects on land, water, wildlife and people before it can get an EC.

Read more

Under the EIA Notification, 2006, large projects need prior environmental clearance in four stages: screening, scoping (the ToR), public consultation (including a public hearing) and appraisal by an expert committee. The developer pays a consultant to write the EIA. Hydro and pumped storage projects above set limits are 'Category A' and are appraised in Delhi by the EAC for river valley projects.

Related: Terms of ReferenceEnvironmental clearancePublic hearingExpert Appraisal CommitteeCategory A project

Bodies

Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC)

The central committee of experts that recommends ToR and EC for river valley and hydro projects, including PSPs.

Read more

The EAC for River Valley and Hydroelectric Projects meets about twice a month. Its minutes, published on Parivesh The environment ministry's online portal for clearance applications, agendas and minutes. More in glossary → , are the best primary record of each project's land, forest area, coordinates and decisions, and most of the figures on this site come from them. The EAC recommends; the ministry decides.

Related: Terms of ReferenceEnvironmental clearancePariveshForest Advisory Committee

Bodies

Forest Advisory Committee (FAC)

The central committee that recommends whether forest land may be diverted for a project.

Read more

The Forest Advisory Committee (FAC) The central committee that recommends whether forest land may be diverted for a project. More in glossary → (also called the Advisory Committee) examines forest diversion proposals over a set size, including canopy density, trees to be felled, wildlife value and compensatory afforestation land, and recommends Stage-I approval or not. For Shirawta it recorded 64,729 trees in very dense forest and still recommended Stage-I.

Related: Forest clearanceCanopy density / very dense forest

Law

Forest clearance (Stage-I / Stage-II)

Central permission to use forest land for a project. Stage-I is in-principle approval with conditions; Stage-II is final approval.

Read more

Under the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980 The 1980 forest law (renamed in 2023) that requires central approval before forest land is diverted. More in glossary → , 1980, the earlier Forest (Conservation) Act, forest land cannot be used for non-forest purposes without central approval. After the Forest Advisory Committee reviews a proposal, the ministry gives Stage-I (in-principle) approval. Once the state reports that conditions are met (compensatory afforestation land, payments, forest-rights compliance), Stage-II (final) approval follows. No work may start on forest land under Stage-I alone.

Related: Forest Advisory CommitteeCompensatory afforestation (CA) and CAMPANet present value (NPV) of forestForest Rights ActVan (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980

Community

Forest Rights Act (FRA)

The 2006 law that recognises tribal and forest-dwelling communities' rights over the land and forests they use.

Read more

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 recognises individual and community rights. Under a 2009 ministry circular, forest diversion needs proof that FRA rights have been settled and the consent of affected Gram sabha The assembly of all adult voters of a village; under FRA and PESA its consent is needed for some decisions on land and forests. More in glossary → . Compliance has been weak, and in 2026 the tribal affairs ministry said the Act itself does not require gram sabha consent for Stage-II.

Related: Gram sabhaPESA and Fifth Schedule areasForest clearance

Law

Gadgil and Kasturirangan reports

Two expert reports on protecting the Western Ghats: Gadgil and Kasturirangan reports Two expert reports on protecting the Western Ghats: Gadgil (2011) proposed 64% as sensitive, Kasturirangan (2013) cut it to 37%. More in glossary → (2011) proposed 64% as sensitive, Kasturirangan (2013) cut it to 37%.

Read more

The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel led by Madhav Gadgil (2011) graded the whole range into three zones of sensitivity and gave local bodies a central role. The High-Level Working Group led by K. Kasturirangan (2013) narrowed protection to about 37% of the area (natural landscapes), leaving the rest open to regulated development. The draft ESA notifications follow Kasturirangan.

Related: Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive AreaWestern Ghats / Sahyadri

Community

Gram sabha

The assembly of all adult voters of a village; under FRA and PESA and Fifth Schedule areas In tribal-majority 'Scheduled Areas', the 1996 PESA Act gives gram sabhas a say over land acquisition and resources. More in glossary → its consent is needed for some decisions on land and forests.

Read more

Gram sabhas in the Karjat and Malshej belts have passed resolutions against PSPs, according to residents. Whether these resolutions were sought or considered before clearances is a key question on the Voices page.

Related: Forest Rights ActPESA and Fifth Schedule areasPublic hearing

Ecology

Lateritic plateau (sada)

Flat, rocky hill tops that look barren in summer but burst into rare, mostly endemic flowers in the monsoon.

Read more

The Sahyadri hill tops are capped with laterite. Dry for eight months, they fill with shallow rock pools and short-lived herbs in the rains. On the Kas Lateritic plateau (sada) Flat, rocky hill tops that look barren in summer but burst into rare, mostly endemic flowers in the monsoon. More in glossary → , about 80% of the region's phytogeographically important plant species are restricted to the plateau top and escarpments. Closed-loop PSPs prefer flat hill tops for upper reservoirs, and site visits in dry months can mistake them for wasteland.

Related: Western Ghats / SahyadriEAC site visit

Units

MCM and TMC (water volume)

MCM and TMC (water volume) MCM = million cubic metres. TMC = thousand million cubic feet, about 28.3 MCM. More in glossary → = million cubic metres. TMC = thousand million cubic feet, about 28.3 MCM.

Read more

Indian water documents use both. Karjat's upper reservoir is written as '0.56 TMC (15.87 MCM)'. One MCM fills about 400 Olympic swimming pools.

Related: Pumped storage project

Process

Memorandum of understanding (MoU)

A non-binding agreement between the state and a developer to study and build a project at a site, with a water allocation.

Read more

Maharashtra's Water Resources Department has signed about 55 PSP Memorandum of understanding (MoU) A non-binding agreement between the state and a developer to study and build a project at a site, with a water allocation. More in glossary → (78,215 MW). An MoU allots a site and water but grants no environmental or forest permission. Capacities often change later: Amba went from 800 to 1,500 MW, and the EAC has asked developers to revise MoUs to match.

Related: Terms of ReferenceDetailed project report

Land

Muck disposal

Rock and soil dug out for tunnels and caverns, dumped on land set aside for it.

Read more

PSPs are mostly tunnels and underground powerhouses, which produce millions of cubic metres of excavated rock (Humbarli Birmani: 78.34 lakh m³). What is not reused is dumped on 'muck disposal areas', which need land and can slide into streams in heavy rain.

Related: Pumped storage project

Units

MW, MWh and GWh

MW is how fast power flows; MWh (or GWh = 1,000 MWh) is how much energy is stored or delivered.

Read more

Capacity in megawatts (MW) is like the width of a tap. Storage in megawatt-hours (MWh) is like the size of the tank. A 1,500 MW project that can run at full power for 6 hours stores about 9,000 MWh, or 9 GWh. MoUs usually quote MW; for storage, the GWh figure matters more. Where minutes give only hours of operation, we estimate storage and mark it as an estimate.

Related: Pumped storage projectCapacity factor

Bodies

National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)

The body chaired by the Prime Minister whose Standing Committee must approve projects in or near protected areas.

Read more

Projects inside a sanctuary, or within 10 km of one with no notified ESZ, go to the NBWL Standing Committee. Nivakane's EC was recommended on condition that this approval comes before construction. In 2025 the Standing Committee asked for the 10 km rule to be revised to a site-specific approach.

Related: Wildlife sanctuary (WLS) and tiger reserveEco-sensitive zone

Law

Net present value (NPV) of forest

A one-time payment for the ecosystem services lost when forest is diverted, set under Supreme Court orders.

Read more

Besides compensatory afforestation, the developer pays the Net present value (NPV) of forest A one-time payment for the ecosystem services lost when forest is diverted, set under Supreme Court orders. More in glossary → of the forest land, a per-hectare charge based on forest type and density, under Supreme Court orders of 2008 and later ministry guidelines. Penal NPV (up to five times) applies to illegal diversion.

Related: Compensatory afforestation (CA) and CAMPAForest clearanceCanopy density / very dense forest

Process

No-objection certificate (NoC)

A letter from another authority saying it does not object, often required before a committee will consider a project.

Read more

The EAC deferred Savitri and Humbarli Birmani until the Mahabaleshwar–Panchgani ESZ Monitoring Committee issued NoCs. Humbarli's NoC came on 6 Jul 2026 and its ToR on 15 Jul 2026.

Related: Eco-sensitive zoneTerms of Reference

Energy

Open loop

A PSP with at least one reservoir on a river or stream, so it changes natural water flow.

Read more

In an open-loop project one or both reservoirs sit on a river, stream or existing dam and exchange water with it. The EAC calls a project 'open loop' even when its reservoirs are on seasonal nalas, as for Amba. Open-loop projects affect river flow, fish and downstream users more than closed-loop ones. The EAC applies a separate set of standard conditions (its 14 Aug 2023 'Specific ToR' for open-loop PSPs).

Related: Closed loopPumped storage projectTerms of Reference

Bodies

Parivesh

The environment ministry's online portal for clearance applications, agendas and minutes.

Read more

Every EC, forest and wildlife proposal has a Parivesh number (for example IA/MH/RIV/575297/2026 for Amba's ToR). Agendas and minutes are public on the portal; many project documents are not.

Related: Expert Appraisal CommitteeRight to Information

Community

PESA and Fifth Schedule areas

In tribal-majority 'Scheduled Areas', the 1996 PESA Act gives gram sabhas a say over land acquisition and resources.

Read more

The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 applies in Fifth Schedule areas, which in Maharashtra include parts of Pune, Thane, Nashik, Palghar and other districts. It requires consultation of the gram sabha before land acquisition for projects. Some PSP villages, such as Ambegaon (ST population about 55%), fall in such areas.

Related: Gram sabhaForest Rights Act

Community

Public hearing

A meeting near the project site, run by the state pollution control board, where affected people can object on record.

Read more

Public consultation is the third stage of the EIA process. The Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) publishes the draft EIA summary and holds the hearing; written objections can also be sent. The minutes go to the EAC. Residents and activists have reported hearings held far from affected villages, at short notice or postponed.

Related: Environmental impact assessmentGram sabha

Energy

Pumped storage project (PSP)

Two reservoirs at different heights: water is pumped up when power is cheap and released through turbines when power is needed.

Read more

A pumped storage project stores electricity as water held high up. When there is surplus power (for example, midday solar), pumps lift water from a lower reservoir to an upper one. At peak demand the water flows back down through turbines. It is a battery made of dams and tunnels: it does not create energy, it moves it in time and loses part of it on the way. In the Sahyadri, the steep drop of the Ghats gives the height difference ('head') these projects need, which is why so many are proposed here.

Related: Open loopClosed loopRound-trip efficiencyMW, MWh and GWhBattery energy storage system

Law

Red category

Pollution boards' highest-pollution class of industries; hydel projects over 50 MW are red, which restricts them in some ESZs.

Read more

The Central Pollution Control Board sorts industries into red, orange, green and white by a pollution index (red is 60 and above). The EAC noted that hydel projects above 50 MW are Red category Pollution boards' highest-pollution class of industries; hydel projects over 50 MW are red, which restricts them in some ESZs. More in glossary → , so not a fit case in an ESZ without the monitoring committee's NoC. CEA's Jan 2026 roadmap proposes a 'White Category' for off-stream PSPs, which would ease this.

Related: Eco-sensitive zoneNo-objection certificate

Community

Rehabilitation and resettlement (R&R)

What a project must provide to people who lose homes, land or livelihoods.

Read more

The 2013 land acquisition law (RFCTLARR) sets compensation and Rehabilitation and resettlement (R&R) What a project must provide to people who lose homes, land or livelihoods. More in glossary → entitlements. Several PSP EIAs say R&R is 'not applicable' because no houses are submerged or the land is bought privately, even where farmland and grazing land are lost.

Related: Public hearingGram sabha

Law

Right to Information (RTI)

The 2005 law that lets any citizen request government records, normally answered within 30 days.

Read more

Documents not on Parivesh, such as felling orders, Stage-II letters and the state's MoU register, can be sought under the Right to Information (RTI) The 2005 law that lets any citizen request government records, normally answered within 30 days. More in glossary → Act. We list what we have asked for on the Methodology page.

Related: Parivesh

Energy

Round-trip efficiency

Share of the electricity used for pumping that comes back as electricity. For PSPs, typically 70–80%.

Read more

Pumping water uphill takes more electricity than the water gives back when it falls. If Round-trip efficiency Share of the electricity used for pumping that comes back as electricity. For PSPs, typically 70–80%. More in glossary → is 77.5%, every 100 units used for pumping return 77.5 units: 22.5 units are lost as heat and friction. That is why a PSP is a net consumer of power, and why what charges it (coal or surplus solar) decides whether it cuts or adds emissions. NREL's literature review found 70–87%, with 80% as a central estimate.

Related: Pumped storage projectMW, MWh and GWhCapacity factor

Ecology

Schedule-I species

Animals given the highest legal protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, such as leopard, sloth bear and pangolin.

Read more

Since the 2022 amendment the Act has four schedules; Schedule I lists animals with the highest protection. EIAs must list Schedule-I species Animals given the highest legal protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, such as leopard, sloth bear and pangolin. More in glossary → in the study area and propose a conservation plan approved by the Chief Wildlife Warden. Karjat's EC lists 14 Schedule-I mammals; Bhorande's site-visit report 12.

Related: Wildlife sanctuary (WLS) and tiger reserveEnvironmental impact assessment

Process

Terms of Reference (ToR)

The list of studies an EIA must cover, set by the expert committee. Getting a ToR is the first clearance step, not a permission to build.

Read more

At the scoping stage the EAC reviews the developer's Form 1 and pre-feasibility report and recommends Terms of Reference. A ToR lets the developer do surveys and the EIA; it does not allow construction or tree felling. For PSPs the ministry uses ready-made 'Specific ToR' (OM of 14 Aug 2023) plus extra conditions per project, for example 'explore reducing forest land' or a sub-committee site visit before EC. A ToR is valid for a fixed period and can lapse.

Related: Environmental impact assessmentEnvironmental clearanceExpert Appraisal CommitteeEAC site visit

Law

Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam, 1980

The 1980 forest law (renamed in 2023) that requires central approval before forest land is diverted.

Read more

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 was amended and renamed in 2023. It is the legal basis of Stage-I and Stage-II forest clearance, compensatory afforestation and NPV payments.

Related: Forest clearance

Ecology

Western Ghats / Sahyadri

The 1,600 km mountain chain along India's west coast: older than the Himalaya, a UNESCO World Heritage site and a global biodiversity hotspot.

Read more

The Ghats run about 30–50 km inland from Gujarat to Kerala and catch the south-west monsoon, feeding rivers that much of peninsular India depends on. UNESCO lists at least 325 globally threatened species here; 65% of its amphibians and 54% of its tree species are found nowhere else. In Maharashtra the range is called the Sahyadri.

Related: Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive AreaGadgil and Kasturirangan reportsLateritic plateauDevrai

Law

Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA)

About 56,825 sq km of the Western Ghats proposed for protection since 2014; still only a draft, reissued six times.

Read more

Following the Kasturirangan report, the ministry has repeatedly issued draft notifications declaring about 56,825 sq km across six states as ecologically sensitive, 17,340 sq km of it in Maharashtra. The sixth draft came on 31 Jul 2024. It would ban mining, quarrying and new thermal plants and regulate other activities, but it has never been finalised. The EAC notes when a PSP lies inside the draft ESA (most Ghats projects do) and still recommends ToR.

Related: Eco-sensitive zoneGadgil and Kasturirangan reportsWestern Ghats / Sahyadri

Ecology

Wildlife corridor

A strip of habitat that lets animals move between protected areas; usually has no legal protection of its own.

Read more

Environmentalists describe the Bhimashankar–Malshej–Sahyadri belt, where several PSPs are planned, as a Wildlife corridor A strip of habitat that lets animals move between protected areas; usually has no legal protection of its own. More in glossary → used by the Indian giant squirrel (shekru), leopard, sambar and gaur. Because corridors are not notified, project papers can truthfully say a site is 'outside' any sanctuary or ESZ while it sits on a movement route. The EAC's Amba site-visit report asked that corridors be kept 'wherever necessary'.

Related: Wildlife sanctuary (WLS) and tiger reserveEco-sensitive zone

Law

Wildlife sanctuary (WLS) and tiger reserve

Protected areas under the Wild Life (Protection) Act. A tiger reserve has an inviolate core and a surrounding buffer.

Read more

Sanctuaries near the Ghats PSPs include Bhimashankar, Kalsubai-Harishchandragad, Tamhini, Koyna and Radhanagari; Koyna and Chandoli form the core of Sahyadri Tiger Reserve. Projects inside a sanctuary need NBWL approval and are rarely permitted, so developers redraw layouts to stay just outside: Nivakane is about 150 m from the tiger reserve's buffer. Wildlife does not stop at legal lines, so corridors between protected areas matter.

Related: Eco-sensitive zoneNational Board for WildlifeSchedule-I speciesWildlife corridor